“Is the human race responsible for the demise of the earth?” In order to answer this question fairly and in the most accurate way, a theme has been chosen which will resonate throughout the article’s discussion and serve as the primary platform for an argument and answer either way. The theme of deforestation has been selected and its contribution, together with other human-centered activities, will be examined in detail, in order to assess the amount, if any, of human responsibility that can be attributed to the demise of the earth.
The article covers a brief overview of the deforestation theme itself, as well as a history, before moving on to address the reasons why deforestation occurs. The processes, as well as the positive and negative attributes of deforestation will be exposed. The text will attempt to highlight the importance of deforestation in the global economy, while also bringing to point, the devastating effects of deforestation on the earth and in its associated environments. Documentary and theoretical arguments feature throughout the text, as well as relevant, up-to-date statistical data gathered with independent research and face-to-face interviews. At the end of the article, an answer will be reached and some personal thoughts on the theme will be reflected.
Wednesday, April 28, 2010
What is Deforestation?
Deforestation is the systematic eradication and clearance of naturally occurring forests through burning and logging of the area. Trees which are cut down can be sold as a commodity, or they can be burned and the charcoal derivative sold for fuel harvesting. Once sufficiently cleared, the surrounding area becomes available for use as agricultural plantations, livestock pastures, settlements and more. (ref)
In many countries, Deforestation is a widely occurring large scale operation that poses as an extremely profitable economic resource. However, the other side of the coin suggests that deforestation has resulted in the extinction of many plants and animals, the changing climatic conditions, pollution of our oceans, desertification of vast amounts of land and the displacement of indigenous people. Scientists and environmentalists agree that the removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has had adverse impacts on our habitat, biodiversity and the earth’s ability to remove atmospheric carbon dioxide through biological processes, such as photosynthesis in plants and trees. Many regions of deforested land, which once produced fertile soils, have disintegrated into wasteland with extremely degraded soils and high volumes if soil erosion.
In many countries, Deforestation is a widely occurring large scale operation that poses as an extremely profitable economic resource. However, the other side of the coin suggests that deforestation has resulted in the extinction of many plants and animals, the changing climatic conditions, pollution of our oceans, desertification of vast amounts of land and the displacement of indigenous people. Scientists and environmentalists agree that the removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has had adverse impacts on our habitat, biodiversity and the earth’s ability to remove atmospheric carbon dioxide through biological processes, such as photosynthesis in plants and trees. Many regions of deforested land, which once produced fertile soils, have disintegrated into wasteland with extremely degraded soils and high volumes if soil erosion.
All photo's taken by: Ashleigh Gallagher
History of deforestation
The history of deforestation dates back to pre-historical times and was practiced by societies on a small scale even before our civilization began ( Flannery, T (1994). The future eaters. Melbourne: Reed Books). Evidence of the first conscious removal of trees appears in the Mesolithic period or middle stone age some 10,000 years ago at the end of the last ice age. During this time, it is presumed that trees were removed to open up closed forest areas to make ecosystems which were more favourable for game animals. Mesolithic foragers in Europe started using fire in 7000BC to make openings for deer and wild boar which would improve their hunting efforts. Later, fire became a prime tool for the clearance of land for agricultural crops. This period serves as a benchmark for the development of human technology and ended with an introduction into farming (www.eh-resources.org/timeline_prehistory.html#meso).
Before moving on, the website Archaeolink (http://www.archaeolink.co.uk/Neolithic-Age.html) contains a timeline of significant pre-industrial deforestation events, which has been provided below, for a better understanding of the theme and its progression up to now.
“Throughout most of history, humans were hunter gatherers who hunted within forests. In most areas, such as the Amazon, the tropics, Central America, and the Caribbean. In Ancient Greece, Tjeered van Andel and co-writers summarized three regional studies of historic erosion and alluviation and found that, wherever adequate evidence exists, a major phase of erosion follows, by about 500-1,000 years before the introduction of farming in the various regions of Greece, ranging from the later Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age. The thousand years following the mid-first millennium BCE saw serious, intermittent pulses of soil erosion in numerous places.
Easter Island has suffered from heavy Soil Erosion in recent centuries, aggravated by agriculture and deforestation. Jared Diamond gives an extensive look into the collapse of the ancient Easter Islanders in his book Collapse. The disappearance of the island's trees seems to coincide with a decline of its civilization around the 17th and 18th century. He attributed the collapse to deforestation and over-exploitation of all resources.
The famous silting up of the harbor for Bruges, which moved port commerce to Antwerp, also followed a period of increased settlement growth (and apparently of deforestation) in the upper river basins. In early medieval Riez in upper Provence, alluvial silt from two small rivers raised the riverbeds and widened the floodplain, which slowly buried the Roman settlement in alluvium and gradually moved new construction to higher ground; concurrently the headwater valleys above Riez were being opened to pasturage.”
Before moving on, the website Archaeolink (http://www.archaeolink.co.uk/Neolithic-Age.html) contains a timeline of significant pre-industrial deforestation events, which has been provided below, for a better understanding of the theme and its progression up to now.
“Throughout most of history, humans were hunter gatherers who hunted within forests. In most areas, such as the Amazon, the tropics, Central America, and the Caribbean. In Ancient Greece, Tjeered van Andel and co-writers summarized three regional studies of historic erosion and alluviation and found that, wherever adequate evidence exists, a major phase of erosion follows, by about 500-1,000 years before the introduction of farming in the various regions of Greece, ranging from the later Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age. The thousand years following the mid-first millennium BCE saw serious, intermittent pulses of soil erosion in numerous places.
Easter Island has suffered from heavy Soil Erosion in recent centuries, aggravated by agriculture and deforestation. Jared Diamond gives an extensive look into the collapse of the ancient Easter Islanders in his book Collapse. The disappearance of the island's trees seems to coincide with a decline of its civilization around the 17th and 18th century. He attributed the collapse to deforestation and over-exploitation of all resources.
The famous silting up of the harbor for Bruges, which moved port commerce to Antwerp, also followed a period of increased settlement growth (and apparently of deforestation) in the upper river basins. In early medieval Riez in upper Provence, alluvial silt from two small rivers raised the riverbeds and widened the floodplain, which slowly buried the Roman settlement in alluvium and gradually moved new construction to higher ground; concurrently the headwater valleys above Riez were being opened to pasturage.”
Why are we removing trees?
Not all deforestation is intentional. Some forest removal is caused by a combination of human and natural factors like wildfires and subsequent overgrazing, which may prevent the growth of young trees. (www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/deforestation-overview)
There are, however, many reasons why large scale deforestation is still executed all over the world. For one, the intrinsic value of the actual forest has been disregarded and the primary notion behind forested land is that it is more economically viable than farmland(www.buzzle). This ideology, together with corrupt government institutions, deficient environmental law, urbanization, overpopulation and the inequitable distribution of wealth and power is viewed as the main reason why deforestation still takes place. (www.globalchange.current/lectures/deforest/deforest.html)
One can further argue this point using the theory that defines Nature as an Economic resource. Nationalist governments all over the world, believe that, in the economic climate, one is either a person, or property. In this case, nature is seen as property and therefore has no rights. It can be bought and sold, harvested or built upon and has become an obvious attribution of wealth, hence its consideration as an economic resource. The converse of this theory then reads: In order to restore balance with the earth and live sustainably, humans, corporate institutions and government need to understand that nature has rights too. In "Society, Nature and Citizenship", Dickens argues that the development of rights have lead to a renewed issue: a citizenship awareness that gives power to the "ordinary citizens" in a social structure that can be seen as a parallel to the industries (which do nothing less than "manufacturing risks", p. 115 and p. 236), enabling the emergence of some alternative networks and new social movements.
(Dickens, P. 2004. Society and Nature: changing our environment, changing ourselves. chap 8.pg 239. Cambridge: Polity Press).
Of course, in our current economy, there is also a genuine need for all the resources deforested land and its associated commodities provide. With that in mind, deforestation can be argued as being very necessary for our survival and growth. Some of the most important resources include:
• Timber for industrial use and for the harvesting of fuel
• Lumber for paper and other commercial wood products
• Land for the expansion of settlements and increasing urbanisation rates due to population growth.
• The need for fertile crop soils for large scale agricultural plantations to feed our expanding population
• Land for livestock pastures
Logging operations, which provide the world with its paper and wood products, cut down countless trees per year. The latest figures for deforestation rates are estimated at a total loss of 15.5 million hectares of forest world-wide every year (www.earthrestorationservice.org/page/73/forest-facts). This figure, together with the ever-increasing demand for tree charcoal derivatives for fuel harvesting, will only increase for years to come, unless a sustainable solution can be found.
Some loggers even go as far to cut down trees illegally by building roads that retreat far into remote protected forests . This leads to further deforestation, but increased profit, which directly and positively influences the growth of the world’s economy. A prime example of illegal logging can be seen in the forests of Madagascar. With its dilapidated infrastructure, poor health care and education systems, Madagascar is one of the poorest countries in the world ( Country Brief: Madagascar". eStandardsForum. 1 December 2009). Extreme poverty and government corruption has thus lead to the clearance of the protected Rosewood trees in the Masoala and Marojejy national parks. This selective and illegal logging of Rosewood is due to the international demand for the expensive, fine-grained lumber together with the escalation of 2009 Malagasy government political crisis, and an obvious urgency for the people of Madagascar to make money in some way shape or form, in order to provide for their families.
With constantly rising population statistics, there is an obvious need for acquisition of more land and many forests are cleared to make way for human settlement and urbanization or urban sprawl. Below is a graph sourced from the webpage of the World Resources Institute which visually depicts population growth over several centuries.
With population growth in mind, cities are inevitably expanding to accommodate more people and trees are cut down to make more room for houses and roads. This urban sprawl deforestation is occurring worldwide, now that 50 percent of the world's population lives in cities [source: CNN].
Arguably one of the biggest drivers of deforestation is agriculture. Farmers clear forests using “slash and burn” techniques to make way for the planting of crops and grazing of livestock ( www.buzzle.com/articles/facts-about-deforestation.html). It is estimated that many small subsistence farmers my clear up to 4 acres each to feed their families every year. According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNCFCCC) secretariat, subsistence farming is responsible for 48% of deforestation. Commercial agriculture is responsible for 32%, logging 14% and fuel wood removals make up 5% of deforestation. UNFCCC. 2007. Investment and financial flows to address climate change. pp. 81.)
Controversial hydroelectric dams also contribute to deforestation rates, however the upshot to them is that they help to power communities in their surrounding area which can increase their quality of life and degree of urbanisation while also indirectly effecting the growth of that country’s economy. When building a hydroelectric dam however, acres of land must be flooded. This means that many local people can be displaced, causing further deforestation when these people resettle elsewhere. Flooding of a cleared area can also result in erosion of top soil and hence mineral degradation (information curtsey of Mr. Boardman- Smith, a Climatologist and Geography teacher at Reddam House Constantia)
Fires, whether accidental or intended, can destroy acres of forest rapidly. Logged areas are more susceptible to rogue forest fires due to the number of dried, dead trees. Milder winters and extended warm seasons due to global warming also fuel fires (www.howstuffworks/deforest-ation.com). For example, certain species of beetle that usually die off each winter are now able to survive in the warmer conditions and continue to feed on trees. This feeding causes the trees to dry out and die, making them into kindling [source: Environmental Defence Fund].
Digging a coal, diamond or gold mine is another contributor to deforestation. Mining requires the removal of all forest cover, so that trucks and their associated equipment can easily access the mine.
Palm oil, now a buzz word in association with bio-fuel, is currently used in many packaged foods and beauty products. Its rising prices make it more valuable, and, in response, Indonesian and Malaysian farmers destroy acres of trees to harvest it. For this reason, several countries are currently debating a ban on palm oil as a bio-fuel (www.howstuffworks/deforestation.com).
All photo's taken by: Ashleigh Gallagher
Current Statistics on Deforestation:
Statistics reveal that the rapid rate of deforestation, globally, springs from illegal logging operations. The biodiversity of the Amazon is threatened more than ever with the rise in statistics revealing that by 2030 the region would be reduced to a mere 10% of what it is today! Satellite images retrieved, prove that the rate of tropical deforestation is down by yet another 23%. The United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization or UNFAO states that the rapid declines could bring the global forest cover to the size of the Asia Sub-continent by 2050!
Every year more than 8.5 million hectares of tropical rainforests are being razed. Environmental groups are targeting the development and implementation of an educational program to enable those responsible for the damage to decipher the difference between forest types and unclaimed, common land.
“More than 12 million hectares of forest land is lost to urbanization or allied activities each year. This has resulted in a rapid global decline in some regions. For example, in Nigeria 81% of its original forest cover is now permanently lost. The tropical rainforests of Brazil are less by 90-95%.
The forests of Central America are down by two-thirds lowlands, since 1950.
Countries like India, Mexico, Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Sri Lanka, the Congo and Ghana have lost much more than 50% of their rainforest cover.
Harvesting of forest cover has left Afghanistan with a little over 25% forests throughout the country.”
At-a-glance: Deforestation Facts and Figures
Every year more than 8.5 million hectares of tropical rainforests are being razed. Environmental groups are targeting the development and implementation of an educational program to enable those responsible for the damage to decipher the difference between forest types and unclaimed, common land.
“More than 12 million hectares of forest land is lost to urbanization or allied activities each year. This has resulted in a rapid global decline in some regions. For example, in Nigeria 81% of its original forest cover is now permanently lost. The tropical rainforests of Brazil are less by 90-95%.
The forests of Central America are down by two-thirds lowlands, since 1950.
Countries like India, Mexico, Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Sri Lanka, the Congo and Ghana have lost much more than 50% of their rainforest cover.
Harvesting of forest cover has left Afghanistan with a little over 25% forests throughout the country.”
At-a-glance: Deforestation Facts and Figures
• Deforestation occurs at a rate of about 50,000 square miles (129,499 square kilometers)
annually. This is an area roughly the size of England.
• Africa and South America suffer the largest loss of forest worldwide.
• Tropical rainforests are home to more than half of all species on the planet.
• The world's forests store 283 gigatons of carbon. However, this decreases by 1.1 gigatons
• Africa and South America suffer the largest loss of forest worldwide.
• Tropical rainforests are home to more than half of all species on the planet.
• The world's forests store 283 gigatons of carbon. However, this decreases by 1.1 gigatons
annually due to deforestation.
• 84 percent of the world's forests are publicly owned.
• The main cause of deforestation is human activity.
• Only 11 percent of the world's forests are designated for conservation
(All facts and statistics directed sourced from www.howstuffworks/deforestation.com)
So, how do all these deforestation rates affect us both locally and globally? After much scientific assessment, few experts will disagree that, over time, the human race will suffer much more from the destruction of rainforests than we will benefit, which begs the question…
• 84 percent of the world's forests are publicly owned.
• The main cause of deforestation is human activity.
• Only 11 percent of the world's forests are designated for conservation
(All facts and statistics directed sourced from www.howstuffworks/deforestation.com)
So, how do all these deforestation rates affect us both locally and globally? After much scientific assessment, few experts will disagree that, over time, the human race will suffer much more from the destruction of rainforests than we will benefit, which begs the question…
Why do we need trees and why should we stop cutting them down?
Deforestation has many impacts that negatively influence the world’s environment. One of the most dramatic impacts is the loss of habitats for millions of species. 70% of the earth’s land animals, live in forests, yet forests only cover 30% of the earth’s land area. ( deforestation facts) .
Deforestation is a significant driver of climate change. Forest soils are moist, but without protection from tree cover to block out the sun, they quickly dry out. Trees help perpetuate the water cycle by returning water vapor back into the atmosphere. According to National Geographic, rainforests receive over half of the earth’s rainfall every year. When it rains, these trees serve as catchment areas for this rainfall, they absorb the water, clean it and put it back into the earth. Then when the earth heats up, the water returns to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration (evaporation from trees and plants), and is preserved in the form of a cloud. This cloud then carries the water until it becomes too heavy to remain in the atmosphere, and then it is released in the form of precipitation, back into the earth. Without trees to fill these roles, many former forest lands can quickly become barren deserts (Information and descriptions curtsey of Mr. Boardman Smith).
Removing trees also deprives the forest of portions of its canopy, which blocks the sun’s rays during the day and holds in heat at night. This disruption leads to more extreme temperatures swings that can be harmful to plants and animals. Trees play a critical role in absorbing the greenhouse gases that fuel global warming. Fewer forests means larger amounts of greenhouse gases entering the atmosphere and therefore increased speed and severity of global warming. (Global Deforestation. Global Change Curriculum. University of Michigan Global Change Program. January 4, 2006.)
Since 1979 to 1990, more than 5 million acres of rain forests have been destroyed each year, by logging, urbanization, and highways, harming the intricate balance of the forest, displacing native tribe and indigenous people and potentially adversely affecting the world's climate. Logging affects the environment in several ways. Since trucks and large equipment need to get into the forest in order to access trees and transport timber, loggers must clear large areas for roadways. Highways have been built through the Amazon in Brazil and in Central America, countless trees have been removed to make way for cattle pastures. Soil in this area will have already suffered degradation from the removal of trees, but will continue to degrade with constant grazing, making it only viable for a few years.
Forests support biodiversity and foster conservation of medicinal products like honey, resin and herbs. Deforestation destroys genetic variations and results in a permanent loss of various rare plant, animal and insect species. Damage to forests, believe it or not, affects every citizen's living standard. Over-utilization of forest products and logging has resulted in creased dependency and in turn is exposing us to environmental issues associated with the large scale deforestation in the absence of an re - forestation program in place.”
“We have claimed much of our forest cover to accommodate growing populations and for industrial purposes in recent years. The logging and/or burning of trees for fuel and to create pasture and plantation lands has in turn created a monster in the form of depleting forest cover and a major climate change. Today, infringement of forest land to accommodate human settlements has witnessed the razing or felling of trees without timely address of sufficient reforestation”.
Tzeporah Berman, campaign director and founder of Forest Ethics on the fact that over 70 countries in the world no longer have any intact or original forests. 95% of the earth’s old growth forests are already gone. Substantiated by Wes Jackson, president of the land institute, who argues that well over 30% of the soils of the planet have been put into the category of serious degradation.
“Deforestation has not only resulted in irreversible damage to the natural habitat of many wildlife species, but has also resulted in loss of biodiversity and increase in aridity. Forest cover that is razed to meet the demand for timber within different industrial segments has degraded 'green' lands into useless 'waste' lands. Disregard and lax management of our forest cover threatens the survival of many already endangered species and has caused drastic changes in global climate. Desertification and the relocation of numerous indigenous people are the result of deforestation. Deforestation results in permanent habitat loss and the subsequent irreversible loss of thousands of species that enrich the wildlife and ecosystem on the planet.”
Andy Lipkis, president and founder, Tree People
“Deforestation follows a ripple-on trend and has resulted in permanent changes to world geography. It is a major contributor to things like, Global warming, emission of greenhouse gases, global climate change, carbon stores in soil, reduced net oxygen levels, biosphere instability and so on.”
David Suzuki, a Scientist and Environmentalist who was also featured on the Environmental documentary – The 11th Hour. He estimated what it would cost the world to take carbon dioxide out of the air and replace it with oxygen as well as re-pollinate all the flowers in the world. The estimate came to 35 trillion dollars per year to do “what all the green things do for us for free”. He then contrasted that figure to the net profit all the economies in the world. The sum? 18 trillion dollars. And in the madness of contemporary economics, this calculation, does not feature in the euation.
Stephen Hawking, a Professor of Mathematics at the Cambridge University has warne that the human race cannot continue to pollute the atmosphere, poison the ocean and exhaust the land. There isn’t any more available.
Deforestation is a significant driver of climate change. Forest soils are moist, but without protection from tree cover to block out the sun, they quickly dry out. Trees help perpetuate the water cycle by returning water vapor back into the atmosphere. According to National Geographic, rainforests receive over half of the earth’s rainfall every year. When it rains, these trees serve as catchment areas for this rainfall, they absorb the water, clean it and put it back into the earth. Then when the earth heats up, the water returns to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration (evaporation from trees and plants), and is preserved in the form of a cloud. This cloud then carries the water until it becomes too heavy to remain in the atmosphere, and then it is released in the form of precipitation, back into the earth. Without trees to fill these roles, many former forest lands can quickly become barren deserts (Information and descriptions curtsey of Mr. Boardman Smith).
Removing trees also deprives the forest of portions of its canopy, which blocks the sun’s rays during the day and holds in heat at night. This disruption leads to more extreme temperatures swings that can be harmful to plants and animals. Trees play a critical role in absorbing the greenhouse gases that fuel global warming. Fewer forests means larger amounts of greenhouse gases entering the atmosphere and therefore increased speed and severity of global warming. (Global Deforestation. Global Change Curriculum. University of Michigan Global Change Program. January 4, 2006.)
Since 1979 to 1990, more than 5 million acres of rain forests have been destroyed each year, by logging, urbanization, and highways, harming the intricate balance of the forest, displacing native tribe and indigenous people and potentially adversely affecting the world's climate. Logging affects the environment in several ways. Since trucks and large equipment need to get into the forest in order to access trees and transport timber, loggers must clear large areas for roadways. Highways have been built through the Amazon in Brazil and in Central America, countless trees have been removed to make way for cattle pastures. Soil in this area will have already suffered degradation from the removal of trees, but will continue to degrade with constant grazing, making it only viable for a few years.
Forests support biodiversity and foster conservation of medicinal products like honey, resin and herbs. Deforestation destroys genetic variations and results in a permanent loss of various rare plant, animal and insect species. Damage to forests, believe it or not, affects every citizen's living standard. Over-utilization of forest products and logging has resulted in creased dependency and in turn is exposing us to environmental issues associated with the large scale deforestation in the absence of an re - forestation program in place.”
“We have claimed much of our forest cover to accommodate growing populations and for industrial purposes in recent years. The logging and/or burning of trees for fuel and to create pasture and plantation lands has in turn created a monster in the form of depleting forest cover and a major climate change. Today, infringement of forest land to accommodate human settlements has witnessed the razing or felling of trees without timely address of sufficient reforestation”.
Tzeporah Berman, campaign director and founder of Forest Ethics on the fact that over 70 countries in the world no longer have any intact or original forests. 95% of the earth’s old growth forests are already gone. Substantiated by Wes Jackson, president of the land institute, who argues that well over 30% of the soils of the planet have been put into the category of serious degradation.
“Deforestation has not only resulted in irreversible damage to the natural habitat of many wildlife species, but has also resulted in loss of biodiversity and increase in aridity. Forest cover that is razed to meet the demand for timber within different industrial segments has degraded 'green' lands into useless 'waste' lands. Disregard and lax management of our forest cover threatens the survival of many already endangered species and has caused drastic changes in global climate. Desertification and the relocation of numerous indigenous people are the result of deforestation. Deforestation results in permanent habitat loss and the subsequent irreversible loss of thousands of species that enrich the wildlife and ecosystem on the planet.”
Andy Lipkis, president and founder, Tree People
“Deforestation follows a ripple-on trend and has resulted in permanent changes to world geography. It is a major contributor to things like, Global warming, emission of greenhouse gases, global climate change, carbon stores in soil, reduced net oxygen levels, biosphere instability and so on.”
David Suzuki, a Scientist and Environmentalist who was also featured on the Environmental documentary – The 11th Hour. He estimated what it would cost the world to take carbon dioxide out of the air and replace it with oxygen as well as re-pollinate all the flowers in the world. The estimate came to 35 trillion dollars per year to do “what all the green things do for us for free”. He then contrasted that figure to the net profit all the economies in the world. The sum? 18 trillion dollars. And in the madness of contemporary economics, this calculation, does not feature in the euation.
Stephen Hawking, a Professor of Mathematics at the Cambridge University has warne that the human race cannot continue to pollute the atmosphere, poison the ocean and exhaust the land. There isn’t any more available.
Photo taken by: Ashleigh Gallagher
Theories to consider:
Theorist Herman Daly, a professor at the University of Maryland and former senior economist, offers an interesting theory which correlates with the Humans versus Nature theory. The theory states that the world’s current economic climate is like a subsystem, which belongs to a bigger parent system, being the biosphere, or the earth. The subsystem, at this point in time, being relatively new, is geared for growth. It is all set up to grow and expand, whereas the parent system, the earth, is not geared for growth, it remains the same. Thus we are witnessing and contributing to a sub-system which is encroaching on its parent system, and that, according to Daly, is the fundamental cost of economic growth.
In Society and Nature, Peter Dickens, who is based at the University of Cambridge, asks a central question in his piece, formulated in these terms: "How, as society transforms its environment, are people's own natures being transformed?" In order to find answers to this initial problem, Dickens identifies five core concepts: industry, community, evolution, risk and, consequently, knowledge. Taking from the philosophy of the Enlightenment but also referring to the ideas of Michel Foucault and Bruno Latour, the first parts brings historical hints and conceptual elements in order to understand how nature can evolve with our perceptions, culture, ideologies, into debates. Chapter 1 revisits the evolutionary thought since Darwin, Spencer, Sumner and Durkheim (p. 30), while Chapter 2 concentrates on the massive human exploitation of the nature through work, industry, and consumption, in a complex dynamic that is labelled as "humanity's metabolism with nature" at the end of the reading, Dickens goes on to say:
“The world is envisaged as hierarchically stratified. At the most general level are physical mechanisms(e.g. gravity). At a higher level are chemical structures and mechanisms. Higher still are bioplogical mechanisms( e.g. those generating an organism’s growth). Finally, there are physical and social mechanisms. Mechanisms in each level of reality are rooted in, but not reduced to, those operating at lower levels. The nature of these structures and mechanisms is subject to constant critique and scientific development. This critique and development can also stem practical, everyday experience.”
In Society and Nature, Peter Dickens, who is based at the University of Cambridge, asks a central question in his piece, formulated in these terms: "How, as society transforms its environment, are people's own natures being transformed?" In order to find answers to this initial problem, Dickens identifies five core concepts: industry, community, evolution, risk and, consequently, knowledge. Taking from the philosophy of the Enlightenment but also referring to the ideas of Michel Foucault and Bruno Latour, the first parts brings historical hints and conceptual elements in order to understand how nature can evolve with our perceptions, culture, ideologies, into debates. Chapter 1 revisits the evolutionary thought since Darwin, Spencer, Sumner and Durkheim (p. 30), while Chapter 2 concentrates on the massive human exploitation of the nature through work, industry, and consumption, in a complex dynamic that is labelled as "humanity's metabolism with nature" at the end of the reading, Dickens goes on to say:
“The world is envisaged as hierarchically stratified. At the most general level are physical mechanisms(e.g. gravity). At a higher level are chemical structures and mechanisms. Higher still are bioplogical mechanisms( e.g. those generating an organism’s growth). Finally, there are physical and social mechanisms. Mechanisms in each level of reality are rooted in, but not reduced to, those operating at lower levels. The nature of these structures and mechanisms is subject to constant critique and scientific development. This critique and development can also stem practical, everyday experience.”
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)
